This Blog is a part of Bridge Course on John Dryden regarding his critical work Essay On Dramatic Poesie given by Dr. and Prof. Dilip Barad sir where we have been provided with six videos and certain other topics for discussing Dryden and in this Blog I'll ponder upon the interpretations with my understanding.
• About John Dryden:
Introduction :
John Dryden (1631–1700):
John Dryden, often called the “father of English criticism” and the “dominant literary figure of Restoration England,” was a poet, dramatist, translator, and critic. He shaped the literary culture of the late 17th century and set new standards in poetry, drama, and prose. His influence was so vast that the period from 1660 to 1700 is sometimes referred to as the “Age of Dryden.”
Early Life and Education :
Born on 9 August 1631 in Aldwincle, Northamptonshire, England.
Educated at Westminster School under Dr. Richard Busby, who nurtured his classical training.
Later attended Trinity College, Cambridge, where he studied classical literature and rhetoric.
Career Highlights
1. Poet
His early poem Heroic Stanzas (1659) on the death of Oliver Cromwell showed his political awareness.
With the Restoration of Charles II in 1660, Dryden shifted loyalty to the monarchy and celebrated it in Astraea Redux.
Famous for heroic couplets (pairs of rhyming iambic pentameter lines), which became his signature style.
2. Playwright
Wrote more than 25 plays, adapting both English and French dramatic traditions.
Known for heroic plays like The Conquest of Granada and Aureng-Zebe.
Later, he moved towards more realistic tragedies and witty comedies.
3. Critic
His essay “An Essay of Dramatic Poesy” (1668) is a landmark in English literary criticism.
Through dialogues between Eugenius, Crites, Lisideius, and Neander, Dryden debates classical vs. modern drama, blank verse vs. rhyme, and defends English drama.
4. Translator
Translated works of Virgil, Juvenal, Ovid, and others, making classical literature accessible to English readers.
His translation of The Aeneid is still admired for its poetic grandeur.
5. Religious Works
Religio Laici (1682) expressed his Anglican faith.
Later converted to Catholicism, defending it in The Hind and the Panther (1687).
6. Major works
Poetry: Absalom and Achitophel (political satire), Mac Flecknoe (mock-heroic satire), Annus Mirabilis (narrative poem).
Drama: All for Love (his version of Antony and Cleopatra), Marriage à la Mode, Aureng-Zebe.
Criticism: An Essay of Dramatic Poesy, Prefaces to his plays and poems.
Style and Contribution
Perfected the heroic couplet in English poetry.
Balanced wit with clarity, precision, and forceful expression.
Laid the foundation for later critics like Samuel Johnson.
Unified the scattered tendencies of Restoration literature.
Later Life and Death
Fell out of royal favor after the Glorious Revolution (1688) due to his Catholic faith.
Spent later years working on translations and literary projects.
Died : 1 May 1700 and was buried in Westminster Abbey’s Poets’ Corner.
Legacy :
Dominated English literature for nearly four decades.
Remembered as the first great English literary critic and one of the finest satirists.
His influence extended to Alexander Pope and other 18th-century poets.
In short, John Dryden was not only a poet and dramatist but also a shaper of literary taste, whose works bridged Renaissance traditions and the Enlightenment spirit.
1. John Dryden: The Father of English Criticism and a Neoclassical Visionary:
John Dryden holds a pivotal place in English literary history, often hailed as the "Father of English Criticism" by figures like Dr. Samuel Johnson. But what exactly cemented his legacy, and how did he navigate the influences of classical thought while forging his own path? Let's delve into these aspects, particularly through the lens of his famous definition of a play.
Why Dryden is the "Father of English Criticism" :
Dr. Samuel Johnson, among others, recognized Dryden as the "father" due to his role in originating and consistently propagating critical thought. While earlier figures like Philip Sidney were indeed critics, their work differed significantly from Dryden's contributions:
• Volume and Dedication: Philip Sidney's critical work, An Apology for Poetry, was published posthumously and edited by his sister, Mary Sidney. Moreover, Sidney was a "renaissant man in more senses than one," with criticism not being his exclusive focus, and he left behind relatively little critical material compared to Dryden.
• Systematic Approach: Dryden, on the other hand, produced a substantial body of critical writings, including An Essay of Dramatic Poesy and numerous other prefaces. He provided a "very well formed definition of a play," a significant contribution that solidified his position.
In essence, Dryden's sustained and comprehensive engagement with literary criticism, marked by well-articulated theories and definitions, distinguished him as a foundational figure.
Dryden as a Neoclassical Critic :
Dryden is firmly rooted in the Neoclassical tradition, drawing significant influence from classical critics such as Aristotle and Longinus. This influence is evident in his approach to defining literary forms. Interestingly, when presenting his definition of a play through the character Lucidus, Dryden describes it as a "description" rather than a strict "definition". This suggests he anticipated that his understanding might be further developed later, while also demonstrating how he built upon Aristotle's definition of tragedy to create his own.
Dryden's definition of a play can be broken down into three key parts :
1. "a just and Lively image of human nature"
2. "representing passions and humors and the changes of Fortune to which it is subject"
3. "for the delight and instruction of mankind"
These components reflect both his classical heritage and his unique contributions.
How Dryden Differs from Classical Tradition :
While deeply influenced by classical thought, Dryden also diverged from it in significant ways, particularly within his definition of a play:
• Beyond Platonic "Image": Plato famously argued that poets merely copy, creating "secondhand imitation" that is "twice removed from reality". Dryden, however, was not concerned by the word "image" in his definition. He emphasized that the image must be "just" (accurate) but also "Lively" (interesting), thereby moving beyond Plato's philosophical concerns about imitation and adding an aesthetic dimension.
• Deviation from Aristotelian "Catharsis": Aristotle's definition of tragedy famously concluded with the concept of catharsis, a therapeutic purging of emotions. Dryden's definition, however, concludes with "delight and instruction of mankind," placing equal emphasis on both elements. This shift highlights a different purpose for dramatic art, moving away from a purely emotional purification towards a balanced aim of pleasure and moral guidance.
• Embracing Realism: Classical and even Renaissance representations (like those by Sidney) often contained a "touch of the ideal". Dryden's definition, particularly the part about "representing its passions and humors and the changes of Fortune to which it is subject," indicates a significant leaning towards realism. He suggests that a poet's role is to depict "life as it is," tracking the dynamic and changing nature of human passions and humors. This focus on portraying reality, including its inherent changes, marks a notable departure from a purely idealistic representation often found in earlier traditions.
1.
https://youtu.be/eeevRKMgXDU?si=66YFsinwNeIqFVRe John Dryden masterfully synthesized classical influences with his own innovative insights. He earned his title as the "Father of English Criticism" through his prolific and systematic critical output, and his definition of a play stands as a testament to his ability to both uphold neoclassical principles and subtly, yet significantly, depart from them to introduce elements of realism and a broader artistic purpose.
2. John Dryden: The Neoclassical Critic and the Significance of "An Essay of Dramatic Poesy"
John Dryden stands as a pivotal figure in English literature, not only as a neoclassical poet but also as an influential critic. His major critical work, "An Essay of Dramatic Poesy," offers profound insights into the literary landscape of his time and his approach to dramatic art. Understanding Dryden's critical stance and the choice of his essay's title requires delving into the literary context of the Neoclassical age and its relationship with the preceding Elizabethan era.
Dryden's Neoclassical Stance: Seeking a Median Path :
The Age of Dryden, broadly known as the Neoclassical period, emerged as a conscious reaction to the Elizabethan age. The Elizabethan era was characterized by its "free flow of imagination and romances," which the succeeding generation of poets, including Dryden, sought to move away from. Neoclassical poets aimed to return to different sources of inspiration, often looking back to ancient Greek and Roman models.
However, this turn to classicism was not uniform. Some practitioners became "conservative imitators" or "blind imitators of Horace, Aristotle, etc.," leading to what could be seen as "fundamentalism or needless narrowness" with "cramping effects". Others, like Dryden, sought "fresh inspiration" while engaging with classical ideas in a new way.
Dryden, as a poet, realized the need for a "sanitized, well-tested kind of advice or motto" to justify his own age and his practices against those of the Elizabethans. He saw that literature should "ultimately not slave to any blind doctrine" and advised against a "doctrinaire approach". Instead, Dryden, embodied by the character Neander in "An Essay of Dramatic Poesy," sought to find a "median middle point". This middle path involved "warmly responding and consciously kind of good taking the good things out of the classical reference but also taking the good things quietly from the Elizabethans meaning the freedom". This approach reveals a "tacit mixture of classicism with romanticism," indicating that while Dryden was fundamentally a classicist, he was "not a blind classicist".
Why "Dramatic Poesy"? Justifying an Art Form :
The title "Dramatic Poesy" refers specifically to the "poetical art form of drama". Dryden's decision to focus on this genre was deeply personal and professional. As a practitioner who wrote dramas "in verse" he felt it essential to "reflect and formally kind of prepare a critical position" for this particular genre.
3. John Dryden: A Neoclassical Vision of Drama and Criticism
John Dryden stands as a pivotal figure in English literature, particularly as a neoclassical poet and critic. His seminal work, "An Essay of Dramatic Poesy," not only reflects the literary currents of his time but also establishes a significant critical framework for understanding drama.
Dryden's Neoclassical Stance and the Literary Landscape :
The Age of Dryden followed the Elizabethan era, which was characterized by a "free flow of imagination and romances". Neoclassicism emerged partly as a reaction to this, with poets seeking inspiration from different sources. While some neoclassical poets became "conservative imitators" or "blind imitators of Horace, Aristotle, etc.," others sought "fresh inspiration".
Dryden, as a poet, recognized the need for a "sanitized, well-tested kind of advice or motto" to justify his contemporary age and his own practices against those of the Elizabethans. His essay features four interlocutors, with Neander (who represents Dryden himself) striving to find a "median middle point". This middle ground involves not only embracing the positive aspects of classical references but also incorporating the "good things quietly from the Elizabethans," particularly their freedom. This approach reveals a "tacit mixture of classicism with romanticism" within Dryden's work.
It's crucial to understand that while Dryden is a classicist, he is "not a blind classicist". He firmly believed that "literature ultimately does not slave to any blind doctrine" and advised against a "doctrinaire approach".
Why "Dramatic Poesy"? The Title's Significance
Dryden himself was a practitioner of drama, writing plays often in verse. He felt that as a practitioner and an educated individual, he needed to "reflect and formally kind of prepare a critical position" regarding this genre.
The title, "Dramatic Poesy," refers to the "poetical art form of drama". The work looks back through a lineage of critical thought, from Philip Sidney to Horace and ultimately to Aristotle, thereby connecting the entire history of criticism with the practice of drama.
One key purpose of "Dramatic Poesy" was to justify neoclassical dramatic art against the romantic practices of figures like Shakespeare, Webster, or Marlowe, who, while showing some "obeisance to the classical stuff," were ultimately romantic in their approach. The essay boldly asserts the "autonomy and independence" of neoclassical drama. Furthermore, it serves as an effort to "temper and moderate the co practitioners of the dramatic art of Dryden's own time".
Dryden's Definition of a Play: Just, Lively, Delightful Instruction
A central concern in "An Essay of Dramatic Poesy" is the very definition of drama. Dryden's definition is both precise and insightful:
"A play ought to be a just and lively image of human nature."
Let's break down the key components of this definition:
• "Just": This term implies naturalness and absence of artificiality or consciousness. A play should feel authentic and not contrived.
• "Lively Image": This goes beyond mere "copy or imitation". It suggests a vibrant, dynamic "representation" of human nature, imbued with liveliness.
• "Human Nature": The representation should encompass the full spectrum of human experience, including "humor, passion, and humor" (often interpreted as different facets of human temperament), which are seen as the "colors of life".
Beyond these core elements, Dryden also emphasizes the ultimate purpose and effect of a play: "Delight and Instruction".
• "Delight" vs. "Pleasure": Dryden specifically uses "delight" rather than "pleasure". While "pleasure" might be considered "sensual," "delight" is presented as something potentially "divinely" inspired, leading to a "peace of mind".
• "Delightful Instruction": Dryden understood that humans are not always keen to follow instruction. However, if instruction is presented "in a delightful way," it has the power to become a "landmark event". This highlights his belief that literature should not only entertain but also subtly educate and uplift the audience.
Understanding this definition is key to evaluating Restoration literature and appreciating Dryden's significant contributions to literary criticism from a "proper perspective".
• https://youtu.be/ObWjxgfZT_8?si=PJXAHRuvf911xmir
The choice of title was also strategic for several key reasons:
• Justification against Romanticism: Neoclassical dramatic practices, championed by Dryden and his contemporaries, needed to "justify itself against practitioners like romantic practitioners like Shakespeare, Webster or Marlowe". These earlier playwrights, though partly drawing on classical ideas, were ultimately seen as romantic in their approach. Dryden's essay served to "put its own in a flag courageously and show its autonomy and independence" for the neoclassical dramatic art form.
• Connection to Critical Tradition: "Dramatic Poesy" deliberately looks back through a lineage of critical thought, connecting "through Philip Sidney through Horace back to Aristotle". This demonstrates Dryden's engagement with the historical evolution of criticism and dramatic practice.
• Moderation and Guidance: The essay was also an "effort to temper and moderate the co-practitioners of the dramatic art of Dryden's own time". This suggests Dryden's role not just as a defender but also as a guide for his contemporaries in navigating the principles of neoclassical drama.
In "An Essay of Dramatic Poesy," Dryden explores these ideas through the dialogue of four interlocutors. While the first three characters are neo classically oriented but hold differing positions, Neander, who represents Dryden himself, strives to articulate this crucial "median point" – a balanced approach that respects classical tradition without falling into rigid imitation, while also appreciating the freedom found in earlier English literature.
In essence, "An Essay of Dramatic Poesy" is Dryden's articulate defense and philosophical exploration of drama within the neoclassical context, demonstrating his comprehensive understanding of both critical theory and practical application.
4. Unpacking Dryden's Definition of a Play: A Deep Dive into "A Just and Lively Image"
John Dryden, a towering figure in Restoration literature, offered a profound definition of a play in his work, "Dramatic Poesy". Understanding this definition is crucial for anyone looking to grasp his dramatic theories and the nuances of the Restoration period. Let's break down his key ideas.
The Core of Dryden's Definition
Dryden famously posited that a play "ought to be a just and lively image of human nature". This concise statement holds significant weight, with each word contributing to a richer understanding of his theatrical philosophy.
"A Just and Lively Image": More Than Just a Mirror
1. "Just": When Dryden says "just," he emphasizes authenticity and naturalness. This means that the play should be free from "artificiality" or "consciousness". It's about presenting reality as it is, without contrived elements that detract from its truth.
2. "Lively Image": This goes beyond mere imitation or copying. A "lively image" implies a vibrant and dynamic representation. It's not enough to simply mirror life; the portrayal must be spirited and engaging, making the representation feel alive to the audience.
Together, "just and lively image" means the play should offer an honest, natural, and vibrant portrayal, avoiding anything that feels fake or uninspired.
The Subject: "Human Nature"
The focus of this "just and lively image" is "human nature". This encompasses the full spectrum of human experience, including the "humor patient and humor" that are an integral "part of the life," reflecting the "colours of life". Dryden's plays aim to reflect humanity in its entirety, capturing both its essence and its various manifestations.
The Purpose: "Delight and Instruction"
Beyond mirroring human nature, a play, for Dryden, must also achieve two primary objectives: "delight" and "instruction".
1. "Delight" vs. "Pleasure": Dryden specifically chose the word "delight" over "pleasure," highlighting a crucial distinction. While "pleasure" might be seen as "sensual," "delight" carries a more divine or elevated connotation. "Delight" can lead to a "feeling of peace" and "peace of mind," transcending mere physical gratification. This suggests that a play should offer an experience that is deeply satisfying and mentally calming, rather than just superficially entertaining.
2. "Instruction": The other critical component is "instruction". Dryden believed that plays should impart lessons or moral guidance. However, he emphasized that this instruction is most effective when presented in a "delightful way". If learning is enjoyable, it becomes a "landmark event" that people are more likely to embrace and follow. This creates a powerful combination: a play that not only entertains but also subtly educates and enriches the audience.
In essence, Dryden's definition underscores the idea that drama should not only reflect reality truthfully and vibrantly but also do so in a manner that deeply pleases the audience, thereby making any embedded lessons more impactful and memorable. This perspective is vital for evaluating Restoration literature and appreciating Dryden's contributions to dramatic theory.
5. Navigating Tradition and Innovation: John Dryden's Defense of English Drama
John Dryden, a pivotal figure in English literary history, often engaged with the critical debates of his time, particularly those surrounding drama. His seminal work, An Essay of Dramatic Poesy, presented as a dialogue, offers a fascinating insight into the comparative criticism of ancient, modern, and French playwrights. At the heart of this discussion, particularly regarding the justification of native English literary tradition, is the character of Eugenius.
Eugenius's Balancing Act: Bridging Past and Present
Eugenius, in Dryden's discourse, emerges as a figure striving to reconcile differing viewpoints. His primary objective is to justify the native English tradition of literature. He attempts to "make both ends meet," proposing new practical boundaries for drama while simultaneously acknowledging, and not entirely abandoning, classical bindings. This position is not without tension, as he endeavors to defend English practice without completely discarding the established classical rules.
One of Eugenius's key arguments is that modern playwrights have not simply imitated or solely followed the ancients. In fact, when speaking of "moderns," Eugenius strategically includes earlier classical English authors, effectively bolstering his argument for the unique and valid contributions of English drama. He seeks to demonstrate that English playwrights can operate independently or in a manner "supported today," rather than perpetually relying on or merely adhering to the principles of the ancients. This perspective aims to address the question of why English literature should not respect its own traditions and contributions.
Furthermore, Eugenius defends the "English imagination" and the distinctive features of English plays. For instance, he argues that the English practice of mixing tragedy and comedy within a single play, while perhaps not strictly conforming to classical purity, still holds merit and does not detract from the dramatic experience. This stance signifies a departure from rigid adherence to classical norms, advocating for a more liberal approach that accommodates the "spirit of classical reference" while still allowing for national characteristics. He implicitly tries to make English practices appear "very appropriate," subtly attempting to displace the influence of other traditions, especially the French.
The French Challenge and the Fight for Freedom
The Restoration period in England, marked by the return of Charles II, saw a significant French influence on socio-political issues and, consequently, on literary taste. The French playwrights were seen as rigorous adherents to classical principles, particularly the three unities: unity of action, time, and place. Proponents of the French model argued that these playwrights were "really better" and "living truer to the classical motto". They represented a disciplinary and decorous approach, emphasizing the need to "go back to the ancients in exact terms".
In contrast, those described as "radical" or "liberal" in the debate sought greater "power and more freedom" for dramatic expression. They questioned the necessity of strict adherence to ancient rules, especially when successful plays were being produced by English authors who did not always conform. The debate, therefore, was not merely academic; it reflected a tension between those who championed strict classical discipline and those who advocated for more flexibility and originality in dramatic creation. The perception was that while French playwrights were producing "nice plays" within the classical tradition, English communities were either struggling to live up to the classical model or actively fighting against it.
Eugenius, though advocating for English drama, also acknowledges certain limitations within the unities, suggesting that these limitations, if rigorously applied, could ultimately "condemn" English plays. This highlights the complex tightrope walk Dryden performs through Eugenius – acknowledging the power of classical ideals while stoutly defending the unique path of English dramatic development.
Dryden's Underlying Goal: Affirming English Identity
Ultimately, through Eugenius, Dryden's broader intention becomes clear: to champion and justify English literary innovation and tradition. He questions whether English literature must forever be indebted to the ancients or if it can carve out its own path, doing "something separately" or being "supported today". This goes beyond mere literary criticism; it’s an assertion of national literary identity and pride. Despite the pressures to conform to classical or French models, Dryden, through Eugenius, strives to demonstrate that English communities are capable of producing excellent drama that is both original and resonant, without necessarily ".
6. Bridging Worlds: How Dryden Reconciled Classical Rules with English Theatre
John Dryden, a pivotal figure in English literary history, grappled with a significant challenge: how to reconcile the revered, established rules of classical drama with the burgeoning, vibrant, and often rule-bending practices of the emerging English theatrical tradition. Rather than simply adhering to or rejecting either, Dryden, primarily through the voice of Eugenius in his work, sought to forge a balanced path, demonstrating a deep respect for ancient principles while stoutly asserting the unique value and freedom of native English theatrical expression. This nuanced approach, described as an effort to "make both posts together," involved navigating a terrain "not free from tension".
The Enduring Shadow of Classical Rules
Eugenius acknowledges that the ancients "rode certain rules". These included foundational principles like the "three unities" – action, time, and place – which were considered hallmarks of well-structured drama. Furthermore, classical drama rigidly separated "tragedy and comedy," a convention that dictated a clear distinction between serious and humorous dramatic forms. Eugenius's statements consistently conform to the "spirit of classical reference," indicating an awareness and appreciation for these foundational tenets. Dryden was not advocating for a wholesale abandonment of these time-honored practices, but rather questioning the extent of their unquestioning application to new theatrical landscapes.
Championing English Innovation and Freedom
Despite acknowledging classical precedents, Dryden's broader agenda, articulated through Eugenius, was to "justify the solid native English tradition of literature". He posed a crucial question: why should one only respect the ancients' contributions, and is it truly necessary to "go all on" following them rigidly, or "can [English theatre] also do something separately?". This was a direct challenge to the notion that innovation was inherently inferior to imitation.
The English practice, in Dryden's view, brought its own valuable contributions:
• Emotional Depth and Broader Themes: Eugenius implicitly criticizes the ancients for not depicting certain emotions, such as "love emotion," suggesting an area where English drama expanded beyond classical strictures. This marked a significant departure, allowing for a richer tapestry of human experience on stage.
• Mixing of Genres (Tragicomedy): While classical drama strictly separated tragedy and comedy, English theatre often blended them, producing what is known as tragicomedy. Eugenius, in defending English practices, highlights the ability of the same person to "do both tragedy and comedy," which aligns with the English inclination to mix these genres. This fusion allowed for a more varied emotional experience for the audience, reflecting life's inherent complexities where joy and sorrow often intertwine.
• "Saving the English Practice": Dryden "puts Eugenius in a dilemma" by tasking him with the difficult but crucial responsibility of "saving the English practice". This implies a defense against criticisms that English theatre was undisciplined or inferior. Ultimately, the English practice is presented as becoming "very appropriate," suggesting its inherent validity and success on its own terms, not just in comparison to the ancients.
Navigating the Anglo-French Debate :
The context of Dryden's reconciliation efforts was further complicated by the strong influence of French dramatic conventions, which were seen by some as living "truer to the classical model". Dryden identifies a "rhetorical neurological medical community" (likely referring to critics or intellectual circles) who were "all for French mode of business" and believed the French were genuinely "better" in their adherence to classical principles.
Eugenius, therefore, finds himself in a position where he must justify English practices against those who advocated for a stricter, often French-influenced, adherence to classical rules. He confronts this by questioning whether the English are "not living closer" to the classical motto themselves, or if they are "fighting for the classical model" in a different, perhaps more flexible, way. This rhetorical stance underscores Dryden's attempt to validate English deviations not as mere errors, but as potentially legitimate interpretations or advancements of dramatic art.
A Harmonious Synthesis :
Ultimately, Dryden, through Eugenius, does not seek to establish a rigid set of new rules, nor does he advocate for an outright rejection of the past. Instead, his reconciliation involves finding a harmonious synthesis. He advocates for a theatre that is rooted in the foundational wisdom of the ancients – respecting elements like strong plot and structure – but is not bound by dogmatic adherence to every classical convention.
This allowed for the organic development of a distinctly English theatrical tradition, one that could embrace its own innovations, explore a wider range of human emotions, and resonate with its contemporary audience, while still acknowledging its classical heritage. It was a forward-looking approach that championed artistic freedom within a framework of informed appreciation for dramatic history.
7. The Rhyme and Reason Behind Dryden's Dramatic Debate
In the world of 17th-century English literature, John Dryden stands as a titan, and his Essay of Dramatic Poesy remains a cornerstone of critical thought. Within this influential work, a particularly engaging controversy unfolds towards its conclusion: the appropriateness of using rhyme versus blank verse in serious dramatic plays. This wasn't merely an academic squabble but a fundamental debate about the very nature of theatrical representation and its aims.
The core of this debate is articulated through two of Dryden's characters in the essay: Crites and Neander. Neander, often considered Dryden's own mouthpiece for much of the essay, initially advocates for the use of verse, particularly the heroic couplet style, in serious plays like tragedies. Conversely, Crites vehemently opposes this, seeing rhyme as fundamentally at odds with the agreed-upon definition of drama.
Crites' Objections: The Stifling Artificiality of Rhyme Crites' primary argument against rhyme is its perceived artificiality. He contends that anything "just and Lively" in drama cannot be so "artificial that it takes up Rhymes".
He offers several relatable, even "hilarious," examples to underscore his point:
• Would anyone genuinely scold a servant in rhyme?
• Would everyday repartee happen in rhyming couplets?
For Crites, imposing the necessity of rhyme puts an unnatural stress on the playwright, forcing an artificiality that "takes away the naturalness, the natural enactment" of the play. He believes that requiring actors to speak in rhyme would hinder the realistic portrayal of human interaction.
Neander's Defense: Grandeur, Heightened Effect, and Audience Delight
Neander, though ultimately presenting what is described as a "weak" defense, offers several counter-arguments in favor of rhyme, specifically for serious plays he states that:
• Adding rhyme and verse increases the "Grandeur" of both thought and action, thereby matching the inherent seriousness of a tragic play.
• A playwright can simply avoid scenes where rhyme would feel out of place, such as someone scolding a servant.
• Drawing on Aristotelian principles, Neander argues that tragedy depicts life "better than what is being lived". In this "heightened stage of a representation," verse further heightens the effect, making it suitable for characters who are "better than ourselves".
• He also suggests that the craft of the playwright can overcome the artificiality; a skilled writer can make verse sound natural.
• Finally, Neander appeals to the ultimate goal of drama: delight and pleasure. He argues that when a viewer listens to rhymes, they "enjoy the rhyme" and "derive more pleasure," which ultimately "add[s] to the pleasure" of a serious performance.
The Irony of Practice: Dryden's Own Shift :
Despite Neander's earnest defense, the source points out a significant irony: Dryden's own most famous play, All for Love, is notably not in verse. This practical decision by Dryden himself suggests he may have "learned from this exercise" and ultimately gravitated towards a more naturalistic approach in his dramatic writing, moving away from the very rhyming convention his character Neander advocated so strongly for. This highlights a potential evolution in Dryden's own dramatic theory and practice, where the ideal articulated in an essay gives way to the demands of theatrical performance and audience reception.
The debate, though seemingly concluded by Neander in the essay, remains a fascinating look into the tension between classical poetic forms and the emerging desire for naturalistic representation in English drama.
Rhyme or Reason? Unpacking Dryden's Epic Debate on Poetic Form in Drama
In the rich tapestry of literary criticism, few works stand as tall as John Dryden’s An Essay of Dramatic Poesy. Beyond its broad exploration of dramatic principles, the essay culminates in a fascinating and lively controversy regarding the appropriateness of using rhyme versus blank verse in plays, particularly in serious tragedies. This debate, presented through the voices of Dryden’s fictional characters, offers profound insights into the artistic conventions of the neoclassical era and the enduring quest for the perfect dramatic form.
The Protagonists of Poetic Form: Crites vs. Neander :
The core of this compelling discussion unfolds between two of the essay’s four interlocutors: Crites and Neander. In this intellectual joust, Neander serves as Dryden’s literary mouthpiece, advocating for the use of rhyme in serious dramatic works, a stance that aligns with the neoclassical tradition of heroic couplets prevalent at the time. Crites, on the other hand, raises pointed objections, challenging the very premise of rhymed verse in plays.
Crites's Scrutiny: Rhyme as Artificiality :
Crites opens his argument by striking at the heart of the matter: rhyme is inherently artificial. He contends that something described as "just and lively" – qualities presumably desirable in drama – cannot possibly be reconciled with the contrived nature of rhyme. To illustrate his point, Crites employs humorous and relatable examples, questioning the naturalness of everyday dialogue rendered in verse. "Would anybody scold one's servant in rhyme?" he asks, highlighting the absurdity of such a scenario. Similarly, he wonders if "repartee would that be in rhyme," suggesting that the spontaneous cut-and-thrust of conversation would be stifled by the demands of rhyming.
For Crites, the artificiality imposed by rhyme, and the stress it places on the playwright to contrive rhymes, ultimately "takes away the naturalness, the natural enactment of the play". His position underscores a preference for dramatic verisimilitude, where the language of the stage closely mirrors the language of life, allowing for a more genuine and believable portrayal of human experience.
Neander's Defense: The Grandeur and Delight of Rhyme :
Despite Crites’s compelling points, Neander steps forward to defend the use of rhyme, particularly in serious tragedies. His arguments, while acknowledged by the source as sounding "really weak" in parts, reveal the prevailing aesthetic values of Dryden's period.
Neander's primary defense rests on the idea that adding rhyme and verse "actually increases the Grandeur" of both the thought and the action depicted in a play. He posits that this elevated language "matches the seriousness of the play," thereby enhancing the gravitas and weight of the dramatic narrative. For Neander, rhyme is not a hindrance but a tool to elevate the subject matter.
To counter Crites's objections about unnatural dialogue, Neander suggests a pragmatic solution: playwrights can simply "avoided scenes" that would appear unnatural in rhyme, such as the aforementioned scenario of scolding a servant. This implies a selective application of rhyme, reserved for moments of heightened emotion or profound intellectual exchange.
Furthermore, Neander links the use of verse to the very essence of tragedy, echoing Aristotle's concept that tragedy depicts "life which is better than what is being lived". In this "heightened stage of a representation of a portrayal," verse "further heightens the effect," making the tragic characters and their experiences appear larger than life, more noble, and more profound than ordinary human existence.While acknowledging the inherent artificiality of rhyme, Neander argues that its successful integration ultimately depends on the "craft of the playright". A skilled writer, he believes, can wield rhyme in such a way that it contributes to, rather than detracts from, the dramatic impact.
Perhaps Neander's most significant justification is his appeal to the ultimate goal of drama: "to provide Delight, pleasure". He asserts that when an audience "listens to the Rhymes he enjoys the rhyme and he will derive more pleasure". Thus, for Neander, rhyme is not merely a formal convention but a means to enhance the audience's enjoyment and appreciation of a serious performance, transforming it into a more pleasurable aesthetic experience.
The Irony of Practice: Dryden's Own Contradiction :
The source highlights a crucial point that undermines Neander's eloquent, if somewhat strained, defense: Dryden's own dramatic practice diverged from the advocacy of his mouthpiece. "Dryden's most famous play, All for Love, is not in verse," a striking revelation that speaks volumes. This practical shift suggests that, despite the theoretical arguments put forth by Neander, Dryden "seemed to have learned from this exercise" that "a play should be more natural". The disjunction between his critical theory and his creative output implies a recognition that the pursuit of naturalness in dramatic portrayal might, in fact, outweigh the perceived grandeur offered by rhymed verse.
• Conclusion: A Legacy of Debate
The debate within An Essay of Dramatic Poesy concerning rhyme and blank verse remains a cornerstone of dramatic criticism. It encapsulates the tension between formal convention and naturalistic representation, a tension that has continually shaped theatrical evolution. While Neander's arguments for rhyme, particularly in light of Dryden's later work, appear somewhat "weak," they nevertheless articulate a significant aesthetic viewpoint of the neoclassical period. Ultimately, this debate underscores the ongoing challenge for playwrights and critics alike: to find the perfect balance between the structured beauty of poetic form and the authentic portrayal of human experience on stage. Dryden, through the voices of his characters and his own evolving practice, left behind a rich legacy that continues to invite contemplation on the very essence of dramatic art.
The provided texts explore John Dryden's significant role in English criticism, establishing why he is considered the "father of English criticism" by figures like Dr. Samuel Johnson, particularly due to his sustained output and well-formed definitions of literary forms. They analyze his identity as a neoclassical critic, influenced by classical thinkers such as Aristotle, and how he simultaneously deviates from classical tradition by introducing elements of realism and emphasizing both delight and instruction in his definition of a play, contrasting with Plato's idea of imitation and Aristotle's concept of catharsis. Furthermore, the sources discuss Dryden's conscious embrace of neoclassicism as a poet and the reasoning behind naming his critical work "An Essay of Dramatic Poesy," highlighting its function in justifying contemporary dramatic practices against earlier romantic forms and connecting to the broader history of literary criticism. His work is presented as a balanced approach that respects classical ideas while integrating the "freedom" of Elizabethan literature, avoiding rigid adherence to doctrica.
Drawing upon the insights from the provided YouTube video transcripts, John Dryden emerges as a foundational figure in English literary criticism, earning the esteemed title of "Father of English Criticism" from Dr. Samuel Johnson and others. This designation reflects his pioneering role in originating and consistently propagating critical ideas. Unlike Philip Sidney, whose critical contributions were published posthumously and were not his sole focus, Dryden produced a substantial body of critical writings, including his seminal "Of Dramatic Poesy" and various prefaces. He also notably provided a well-formed definition of a play, a contribution akin to Aristotle's foundational work in classical criticism.
Dryden is firmly established as a neoclassical critic, significantly influenced by classical thinkers such as Aristotle and Longinus. Coming after the Elizabethan age, which was characterized by imaginative freedom, Dryden's era represented a conscious move towards different sources of inspiration, aiming to justify contemporary dramatic practices against earlier, more romantic ones.
However, Dryden was not a "blind classicist"; he demonstrated a nuanced approach that allowed him to deviate and innovate upon classical traditions. He advised against a rigid, doctrinaire approach to literature. His definition of a play strikingly illustrates these unique contributions: rather than presenting a fixed "definition," he offered a "description," anticipating future developments. This definition can be broken down into three essential parts:
• "a just and Lively image of human nature".
• "representing passions and humors and the changes of Fortune to which it is subject".
• "for the delight and instruction of mankind".
Dryden's deviations are evident in these elements: he was not concerned by Plato's view of "image" as a "second-hand imitation," instead emphasizing the necessity of a "lively" quality to make the "just image" engaging. Furthermore, unlike Aristotle's focus on catharsis, Dryden placed equal emphasis on "delight and instruction," broadening the purpose of drama. Perhaps most significantly, the inclusion of "representing passions and humors and the changes of Fortune" highlights a strong element of realism in his work, depicting the dynamic nature of life as it truly is, a departure from the more idealistic representations prevalent from Plato to Sidney. Dryden consistently sought a "median middle point," effectively blending classical principles with the "freedom" associated with the Elizabethans, thereby creating a "tacit mixture of classicism with romanticism".
In essence, Dryden's critical output, epitomized by "Of Dramatic Poesy," served as a deliberate effort to establish and formalize a critical stance for the dramatic art of his time. His work not only connects back to the history of criticism through figures like Sidney, Horace, and Aristotle but also courageously asserts the independence and autonomy of neoclassical drama, while moderating the practices of his contemporaries. Through this balanced and insightful approach, Dryden solidified his legacy as a discerning critic who profoundly influenced the trajectory of English literary theory by harmonizing tradition with innovative thought.
In one paragraph
John Dryden is unequivocally recognized as the "Father of English Criticism" by Dr. Samuel Johnson and others due to his groundbreaking role in originating and consistently developing critical ideas, a stark contrast to figures like Philip Sidney whose critical works were less extensive and published posthumously. Dryden's extensive critical output, including "Of Dramatic Poesy" and numerous prefaces, cemented his position, particularly his contribution of a "very well formed definition of a play". He is firmly identified as a neoclassical critic, drawing influence from classical thinkers like Aristotle and Longinus, and his era emerged as a deliberate reaction to the free-flowing imagination of the Elizabethan age, aiming to justify contemporary dramatic practices. However, Dryden was not a rigid classicist; he consciously sought a "median middle point," blending classical principles with the "freedom" associated with the Elizabethans, thereby creating a "tacit mixture of classicism with romanticism" and advocating against a blind, doctrinaire approach to literature. His nuanced approach is vividly illustrated in his "description" (rather than a rigid "definition") of a play, which he anticipated might be furthered later. This description consists of three core elements: a "just and Lively image of human nature," "representing passions and humors and the changes of Fortune to which it is subject," and "for the delight and instruction of mankind". Dryden notably deviates from classical traditions by not being concerned with Plato's view of "image" as a second-hand imitation, instead emphasizing the necessity of a "Lively" quality to make the "just image" engaging. Furthermore, unlike Aristotle's focus on catharsis, Dryden placed equal emphasis on "delight and instruction", broadening the purpose of drama. Most distinctively, his inclusion of "representing passions and humors and the changes of Fortune" highlights a significant touch of realism, depicting the dynamic nature of life as it is, moving away from the idealized representations prevalent from Plato to Sidney. Ultimately, Dryden's critical works, especially "Of Dramatic Poesy," served to formally establish a critical position for the dramatic art of his time, connecting with the history of criticism while courageously asserting the independence and autonomy of neoclassical drama and moderating the practices of his contemporaries
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