The Puritan and Restoration ages experienced significant political and literary upheavals; to enhance understanding of these periods, Prof. Dr. Dilip Barad assigned this task.
From Purity to Pleasure: Literature in the Puritan and Restoration Age
(1620–1700)
Introduction :
The seventeenth century was one of the most turbulent and transformative centuries in English history, and nowhere is this more vividly seen than in its literature. Literature, after all, is not created in a vacuum; it reflects the conditions, aspirations, and anxieties of the society that produces it. Between 1620 and 1700, England experienced civil war, the execution of a monarch, the rise of a republic under Oliver Cromwell, the stern and disciplined governance of the Puritans, and finally the dramatic return of monarchy under Charles II in 1660. Each of these political upheavals and religious conflicts left an indelible mark on the literature of the time.
The Puritan Age (1620–1660) was defined by moral seriousness, spiritual introspection, and a rejection of worldly pleasures, while the Restoration Age (1660–1700) celebrated wit, satire, and a culture of pleasure after decades of repression. This literary shift from purity to pleasure reveals how the English imagination responded to social transformation. In examining the Puritan and Restoration periods side by side, one sees not only the stark differences in tone and style but also the ways in which literature became a battleground for competing visions of morality, politics, and human experience.
Historical Background of Puritanism and the Restoration :
The story of seventeenth-century English literature cannot be separated from the larger story of politics and religion that shaped the age. To understand the stark differences between Puritan and Restoration literature, one must first look closely at the historical forces that gave rise to them.
Puritanism had its roots in the Protestant Reformation of the sixteenth century. The Puritans were a group of reformers who sought to remove remaining Catholic rituals and ceremonies from the Church of England, believing that true worship required simplicity, inward devotion, and obedience to the Bible. By the early seventeenth century, Puritans were a powerful cultural and political force. They valued moral discipline, hard work, sobriety, and a life centered on faith. Their distrust of monarchy grew during the reign of James I and even more under Charles I, whose belief in the divine right of kings and support for high Anglican practices clashed with Puritan ideals. Religious tension was further complicated by political disputes over taxation, governance, and the authority of Parliament.
These tensions exploded in the English Civil War (1642–1651). On one side were the Royalists or “Cavaliers,” loyal to the king; on the other were the Parliamentarians or “Roundheads,” many of whom were Puritans. The conflict was not just political but ideological—a struggle between monarchy and Parliament, between religious hierarchy and moral reform. The war ended with the shocking execution of King Charles I in 1649, an act that stunned Europe and marked the first time a reigning monarch had been tried and killed by his own people.
The years that followed were dominated by the Commonwealth and the Protectorate, ruled first by Parliament and then by Oliver Cromwell as Lord Protector (1653–1658). During this period, England became a republic, and Puritan values were enforced in daily life. Theatres were closed by law in 1642 and remained shut throughout the Commonwealth. Public festivals and celebrations were discouraged, gambling and dancing were condemned, and even Christmas was suppressed as a frivolous Catholic invention. The mood of society was one of sobriety and discipline. Literature, unsurprisingly, reflected this atmosphere. Sermons, religious tracts, and spiritual allegories flourished, while worldly amusements and dramatic entertainment vanished. The Puritan background explains why figures like John Milton, John Bunyan, and the metaphysical poets were so influential during this time—their works embodied the spiritual seriousness of the age.
However, Puritan rule was not universally welcomed. Many Englishmen grew weary of the austerity and restrictions on daily life. After Cromwell’s death in 1658, the Commonwealth faltered, and there was growing support for the return of the monarchy. In 1660, Charles II was invited to return from exile, an event known as the Restoration. With his return came not only a new king but a new spirit in English life.
The Restoration marked a dramatic reversal of Puritan values. Charles II had lived in exile at the French court of Louis XIV, where he absorbed the elegance, sophistication, and love of art that characterized continental culture. When he returned to England, he encouraged theatre, music, painting, and literature. The reopening of the theatres in 1660 symbolized a cultural rebirth, and new genres like the comedy of manners emerged, delighting audiences with their wit, satire, and frank portrayal of social life. The Restoration court was notorious for its hedonism and intrigue, and this atmosphere spilled into literature, which abandoned Puritan solemnity for laughter, wit, and worldliness.
At the same time, the Restoration was also an age of science, rational inquiry, and political debate. The Royal Society was founded in 1660, signaling a new respect for empirical observation and intellectual progress. Writers such as John Dryden used literature to reflect on politics, philosophy, and human passions, blending entertainment with critical insight. Satire became a dominant form, mocking hypocrisy and exposing folly in ways that would have been unthinkable under Puritan censorship.
Thus, the historical background of Puritanism and the Restoration reveals a dramatic pendulum swing in English society—from the moral discipline and religious zeal of the Puritan Commonwealth to the playful wit, rational inquiry, and artistic flourishing of the Restoration court. These shifts explain why the literature of the two periods differs so radically: the Puritan Age gave us spiritual epics and moral allegories, while the Restoration Age offered witty comedies, heroic plays, and biting satires. In both cases, literature was the mirror of a nation in transformation, reflecting the struggle between purity and pleasure that defined seventeenth-century England.
What is Puritanism?
The Puritan Age (1620–1660): Literature under Discipline :
The Puritan Age was dominated by the political and religious upheavals that culminated in the English Civil War (1642–1651) and the establishment of the Commonwealth under Oliver Cromwell. The Puritans, who believed in strict moral discipline and personal piety, rejected many of the entertainments and cultural practices associated with the earlier Elizabethan and Jacobean periods. For them, literature was not meant to entertain or amuse but to instruct, guide, and discipline the soul. This atmosphere of austerity profoundly shaped the literary output of the time.
One of the most significant consequences of Puritan rule was the suppression of the theatre. In 1642, Parliament ordered the closure of all theatres, viewing drama as frivolous, morally corrupt, and an incitement to sin. This effectively ended the vibrant theatrical tradition of Shakespeare and his successors, halting the development of drama for nearly two decades. In place of plays, prose writings, sermons, and religious poetry flourished. Literature became deeply infused with spirituality, moral reflection, and political polemic.
Prose writing took on a new prominence. The Puritan era was particularly fertile for religious prose, with sermons, tracts, and polemical pamphlets flooding the press. John Milton’s prose works, such as Areopagitica (1644), argued passionately for freedom of the press and liberty of conscience. Similarly, John Bunyan’s The Pilgrim’s Progress (though published later in 1678, it reflects Puritan spirituality) presented a vivid allegory of the Christian journey from sin to salvation. Bunyan’s work demonstrated how imaginative literature could still thrive within a Puritan framework, provided it served moral and spiritual purposes.
Religious poetry also thrived during this age. The metaphysical poets, though not exclusively Puritan, often reflected themes of spirituality, morality, and divine love. George Herbert’s The Temple exemplified the introspective, devotional tone of the time, blending intricate metaphors with heartfelt piety. Henry Vaughan and Richard Crashaw also explored religious experience through poetic imagery that sought to bridge the gap between the human and the divine.
Milton stands as the towering figure of the Puritan Age. Though his masterpiece Paradise Lost was published in 1667, long after the fall of Puritan power, its vision of cosmic conflict, obedience, and rebellion was deeply shaped by his Puritan background. Milton saw himself as a prophet-poet, using literature to convey divine truth and moral order. His epic poetry combined classical form with biblical content, embodying the Puritan seriousness of purpose while achieving sublime artistic grandeur.
In tone and style, Puritan literature emphasized simplicity, seriousness, and moral clarity. Flowery ornament and frivolous wit were discouraged; instead, clarity of thought, scriptural grounding, and a focus on eternal truths were prized. Literature was not a mirror of worldly society but a guidepost to spiritual salvation.
Yes, just like we added “What is Puritanism?”, we can also add a “What is the Restoration?” section for clarity. This will make your blog more structured and accessible, especially for readers who are not fully familiar with the period.
What is the Restoration?
The term Restoration refers to the re-establishment of the English monarchy in 1660, when Charles II returned from exile to reclaim the throne after eleven years of Puritan rule under the Commonwealth and Protectorate. The word itself captures both a political and cultural renewal: the restoration of monarchy, the Church of England, and traditional institutions of society, but also the revival of literature, theatre, and the arts that had been suppressed under the Puritans.
The Restoration was not simply a change of rulers; it was a dramatic shift in the spirit of the nation. After years of austerity, censorship, and moral strictness, English society embraced a more worldly, hedonistic, and cosmopolitan culture. Charles II, who had spent much of his exile in France, brought with him continental tastes for fashion, music, and theatre. Under his reign, the theatres reopened, actresses were allowed on stage for the first time, and witty comedies of manners flourished. Literature turned away from the Puritan focus on sin and salvation to themes of wit, satire, politics, and social intrigue.
The Restoration also encouraged scientific inquiry and rational debate. The founding of the Royal Society in 1660 signaled a growing respect for experimentation and intellectual progress. Figures like John Dryden came to dominate poetry, drama, and criticism, shaping literary taste in an age that valued both pleasure and intellect. In this sense, the Restoration was not only the return of monarchy but the rebirth of English cultural life, setting the stage for modern literature.
The Restoration Age (1660–1700):
Literature of Wit and Worldlines
The Restoration of Charles II in 1660 marked not just the return of monarchy but also the rebirth of culture, pleasure, and artistic expression. After two decades of Puritan austerity, the court and people alike embraced a more worldly, cosmopolitan ethos. Charles II, having spent years in exile in France, brought with him a taste for continental sophistication, theatre, and wit. Under his reign, literature flourished in ways that were dramatically different from the Puritan Age.
One of the most immediate changes was the reopening of the theatres. Drama, silenced for years, returned with new vigor and new forms. The Restoration stage became known for the comedy of manners, a genre that satirized the manners, intrigues, and hypocrisies of high society. Playwrights such as William Congreve (The Way of the World) and George Etherege (The Man of Mode) crafted witty dialogues, sparkling repartees, and plots revolving around love, seduction, and social games. These plays celebrated urban sophistication and exposed human follies, often with a frankness about sexuality that shocked more conservative audiences but delighted the Restoration court.
Alongside comedy, heroic drama gained popularity, with John Dryden as its chief practitioner. In plays like All for Love and Aureng-Zebe, Dryden used heroic verse to explore themes of love, honor, and political ambition. Dryden also became the dominant literary figure of the Restoration through his poetry, criticism, and satire. His political poem Absalom and Achitophel exemplified the Restoration trend of using literature as a vehicle for political commentary, blending wit with allegory to critique contemporary figures.
Prose literature also expanded during this period, reflecting the broader interests of a society rediscovering itself after repression. Samuel Pepys’s Diary provides an invaluable window into daily life in Restoration London, from the Great Fire of 1666 to the rhythms of court and city. Scientific prose also developed with the foundation of the Royal Society (1660), and writers such as Robert Boyle and Thomas Sprat reflected the growing spirit of rational inquiry.
The tone of Restoration literature was strikingly different from that of the Puritan Age. Where Puritan literature was solemn and introspective, Restoration literature was witty, worldly, and often satirical. The emphasis shifted from salvation of the soul to enjoyment of life, from moral instruction to clever entertainment. Literature became a mirror of fashionable society, relishing in its intrigues, pleasures, and follies.
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Comparative Timeline of the Puritan and Restoration Ages :
The contrast between these two periods can be clearly understood through a timeline that aligns political events with literary milestones.
1620s: Rise of Puritan influence; sermons and religious prose dominate.
1642: English Civil War begins; Parliament orders closure of theatres.
1649: Execution of Charles I; monarchy abolished; Commonwealth established. Bunyan begins religious preaching.
1653: Cromwell becomes Lord Protector; strict Puritan rule intensifies.
1660: Restoration of monarchy under Charles II; theatres reopen. Beginning of Restoration comedy and court literature.
1667: Milton publishes Paradise Lost, blending Puritan vision with epic art.
1668–1678: Dryden dominates drama and poetry; heroic plays and literary criticism flourish.
1678: Bunyan’s The Pilgrim’s Progress published, reflecting Puritan spirituality amid Restoration culture.
1681: Dryden publishes Absalom and Achitophel, landmark political satire.
1690s: Congreve and Etherege perfect comedy of manners. Restoration literature reaches its witty peak.
1700: Dryden dies, marking the end of an era and transition toward 18th-century Neoclassicism.
This timeline highlights how shifts in politics—civil war, republican rule, restoration of monarchy—were directly mirrored in literary production, shaping both content and form.
A Critic’s Review (1700): "From Purity to Pleasure" :
As a literary critic standing at the threshold of a new century, one cannot help but marvel at the transformation of the English Muse over the past eighty years. From the austere heights of Puritan discipline to the dazzling wit of Restoration society, English literature has traversed a journey from purity to pleasure, from sermons to satires, from Milton’s angels to Congreve’s rakes. This transformation has not only enriched our literary tradition but also exposed the shifting moral currents of our nation.
The Puritan Age, shaped by stern religion and political upheaval, sought to refine literature into a tool of moral instruction. Milton, with his sublime Paradise Lost, aimed to “justify the ways of God to men,” while Bunyan’s Pilgrim’s Progress led readers on the path of salvation. Their works, though profound and eternal in spiritual insight, offered little in the way of worldly amusement. The Puritans saw literature as a pulpit in print, preaching repentance and discipline, and they banished the theatre as a den of vice. To a society weary of war and turmoil, such literature provided solace but little joy.
The Restoration, by contrast, has clothed the Muse in brighter garments. With the return of Charles II, our literature found new license to laugh, to satirize, to revel in the play of wit. The comedies of Etherege and Congreve delight in the intricacies of social intrigue, while Dryden’s satires and heroic plays blend artistry with commentary on our politics and passions. Pepys, with his candid diary, has shown us life in its variety, unashamed of its follies. Literature now entertains even as it instructs, and in place of Puritan solemnity we have a celebration of wit, conversation, and pleasure.
Yet the shift has not been without critics. Many still mourn the gravity and moral weight of Puritan writings, fearing that Restoration literature is too frivolous, too licentious, too willing to mock virtue. The frankness of the comedy stage, in particular, has scandalized some audiences, who see in it a decline from the nobler aims of poetry. But perhaps literature must mirror the times, and our age, having escaped the shadow of repression, delights in the freedom of laughter and reason.
Thus, in the year 1700, we inherit a double legacy. From the Puritans, we have moral seriousness, a reminder that literature must speak to eternal truths. From the Restoration, we inherit wit, satire, and the joy of human conversation. Together, these traditions prepare the way for a literature that is at once moral and urbane, serious and witty—the literature of the new century.
Writers of the Puritan Age
(1620–1660) :
John Milton (1608–1674) – The towering literary figure of the Puritan Age. His prose work Areopagitica (1644) defended freedom of the press, while his epic Paradise Lost (1667), though published later, reflected Puritan ideals of obedience to God and the dangers of rebellion.
John Bunyan (1628–1688) – His allegory The Pilgrim’s Progress (1678) became one of the most widely read books in English, portraying the Christian’s journey to salvation.
George Herbert (1593–1633) – A metaphysical poet whose collection The Temple explored personal devotion and religious experience in simple but profound verse.
Henry Vaughan (1621–1695) – His poetry, such as Silex Scintillans, reflected Puritan spirituality and the sense of human life as a pilgrimage toward eternity.
Writers of the Restoration Age (1660–1700) :
John Dryden (1631–1700) – The central literary figure of the Restoration. He wrote Absalom and Achitophel (1681), a political satire; All for Love (1677), a heroic tragedy; and influential critical essays such as An Essay of Dramatic Poesy (1668).
William Congreve (1670–1729) – Master of the comedy of manners. His play The Way of the World (1700) is a brilliant satire on love, marriage, and social intrigue.
George Etherege (1636–1692) – One of the earliest Restoration dramatists. His play The Man of Mode (1676) perfectly captures the witty, rakish spirit of the age.
Samuel Pepys (1633–1703) – His Diary (1660–1669) provides a vivid record of Restoration life, including the Great Fire of London, court life, and everyday society.
Aphra Behn (1640–1689) – One of the first professional female writers in England. Her play The Rover (1677) was a Restoration comedy, and her novella Oroonoko (1688) offered an early critique of slavery.
Conclusion
The Puritan and Restoration Ages represent two dramatically different but equally significant chapters in English literary history. The Puritan Age, marked by discipline, spirituality, and suppression of worldly pleasure, gave us works of profound moral depth, most notably Milton’s epic poetry and Bunyan’s allegories. The Restoration Age, in contrast, reopened the doors of imagination to wit, satire, and worldly sophistication, producing brilliant comedies, satires, and diaries that reflected the renewed vibrancy of society. Literature thus mirrored the oscillation of English society itself—first bent under the weight of moral austerity, then bursting forth into pleasure and wit.
Both traditions continue to shape English literature today. The Puritan emphasis on moral seriousness and spiritual depth, combined with the Restoration’s wit and social realism, laid the foundation for the 18th century’s neoclassical balance of reason and order. In tracing this transformation, one sees that literature is not static but alive, changing with the spirit of the age. The journey from purity to pleasure, from Milton to Dryden, from closed theatres to sparkling comedies, reveals not only the resilience of English letters but also the adaptability of the human imagination in times of trial and triumph.
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