Absalom and Achitophel: Dryden’s Masterpiece of Political Satire
Introduction :
Absalom and Achitophel is not merely a poem of its moment; it is also an enduring study of political ambition, manipulation, and loyalty. The second part (1682), largely written by Nahum Tate but with around 200 crucial lines by Dryden, continued this satirical attack, particularly against his literary and political enemies. Together, these works solidified Dryden’s reputation as a master of allegory and satire.
This blog explores the historical context, literary artistry, allegorical framework, key themes, and the lasting significance of Absalom and Achitophel. Quotations from the text will illuminate how Dryden weaves satire and politics into verse that still resonates centuries later.
The Political Landscape: Context and Motivation :
The Exclusion Crisis (1679–1681) :
The late 1670s and early 1680s in England were years of profound political turbulence. Following the Restoration of the monarchy in 1660, Charles II had reestablished royal authority but faced the challenge of succession. His brother, James, Duke of York, converted to Catholicism, sparking fear among Protestants who opposed a Catholic monarch. The Exclusion Crisis unfolded when members of Parliament sought legislation to bar James from inheriting the throne.
Dryden, loyal to Charles II and the Stuart monarchy, composed Absalom and Achitophel to defend the royal line against this movement. By creating an allegorical poem rooted in Scripture, Dryden gave divine weight to his political stance, portraying loyalty to the king as loyalty to God.
The Popish Plot (1678) :
The Exclusion Crisis was preceded by the Popish Plot, a fabricated Catholic conspiracy concocted by Titus Oates. In his false testimony, Oates alleged that Catholics planned to assassinate the king and massacre Protestants. This lie spread panic, leading to widespread anti-Catholic sentiment, executions, and political instability. Dryden references this atmosphere in his poem, hinting at how fear and rumor fueled rebellion.
For example, he remarks on political agitators who “Invented schemes to prove the plot was true,” underscoring the manipulative power of propaganda.
The Monmouth Factor and Later Rebellion :
Central to the Exclusion Crisis was James Scott, Duke of Monmouth, Charles II’s illegitimate son. As a Protestant, Monmouth became the figurehead for those who opposed James, Duke of York. Many speculated that Charles had secretly married Monmouth’s mother, Lucy Walter, which would grant him legitimacy. Charles, however, repeatedly denied these rumors.
Dryden addresses this uncertainty with poetic irony, describing Absalom (Monmouth) as the king’s “best beloved” yet subtly undercutting his claim:
> “And David, for his love, could not suspect / The flattering charms that did his soul infect."
When Monmouth later led the Monmouth Rebellion in 1685 to claim the throne, the prophetic force of Dryden’s poem became evident.
Dryden’s Political Motivation :
Dryden’s poem was not an abstract meditation but a political intervention. He sought to preserve the Stuart line by reinforcing the legitimacy of Charles II’s rule and discrediting the opposition. His satire targeted the Earl of Shaftesbury (Achitophel in the poem), the leader of the exclusionists, depicting him as a cunning manipulator corrupting the youthful Absalom. Through this allegory, Dryden both defended royal authority and warned against political factionalism.
Publication and Literary Features :
Absalom and Achitophel was first published anonymously in November 1681, though Dryden’s authorship was quickly recognized. It was received as a brilliant intervention in the heated debates of the day. Written in heroic couplets—pairs of rhyming iambic pentameter lines—the poem combined elegance with sharp satire. Dryden mastered the form, balancing clarity with wit, and making his arguments accessible yet cutting.
Consider this couplet on Shaftesbury (Achitophel):
> “Of these the false Achitophel was first; / A name to all succeeding ages curst.”
The compression and balance of the heroic couplet allowed Dryden to deliver devastating judgments with poetic force.
The Second Part (1682) :
Due to the success of the first part, a continuation appeared in 1682. Most of this was written by Nahum Tate, but Dryden contributed around 200 lines, especially those attacking his literary rivals like Thomas Shadwell a story in 2 Samuel 13–19, where Absalom rebels against his father King David, spurred on by the deceptive counsel of Achitophel. The rebellion ultimately fails, and Absalom perishes. By invoking this narrative, Dryden gave his contemporary allegory a sense of divine inevitability and moral clarity.
> “In pious times, where priest craft did begin, / Before polygamy was made a sin...”
The opening lines cast the setting in a biblical light, framing Charles II (David) as a monarch of God’s design, and Monmouth (Absalom) as a beloved but misguided son,Elkanah Settle. These sections revealed Dryden’s dual role as political and literary satirist.
The Allegorical Framework :
Biblical Foundation :
The biblical foundation of John Dryden's poem "Absalom and Achitophel" is the Old Testament story of Absalom's rebellion against his father, King David. This narrative is found in the Second Book of Samuel (chapters 13-18) and serves as a powerful allegory for the political events of Dryden's time.
The poem uses a direct mapping of the biblical characters and events to the people and circumstances of the Exclusion Crisis (1679-1681) in England.
Biblical Characters and Their Allegorical Equivalents
King David represents King Charles II. In the Bible, David is a divinely chosen king, a poet, and a ruler known for his many affairs and children. He is a wise and merciful leader, but his personal failings create vulnerabilities that his enemies exploit.
Absalom represents James Scott, the Duke of Monmouth. Absalom is David's popular and handsome son, but he is driven by ambition and a sense of entitlement. He is a charismatic figure who charms the populace but has no legitimate claim to the throne.
Achitophel represents Anthony Ashley Cooper, the Earl of Shaftesbury. In the Bible, Achitophel is King David's trusted advisor who betrays him and joins Absalom's conspiracy. He is known for his sagacious and cunning counsel, which is so wise it is considered "the oracle of God." His counsel is so powerful that when it is rejected, he hangs himself in despair, knowing the rebellion is doomed.
The Biblical Narrative as a Political Blueprint :
Dryden uses the key events of the biblical story to structure his political argument:
Absalom's Incitement: The biblical Absalom secretly gains popular support and is persuaded by Achitophel to declare himself king in Hebron. Dryden mirrors this by showing the Duke of Monmouth, goaded by Shaftesbury, touring England and gaining public affection with the goal of seizing the crown.
Achitophel's Counsel: The core of both narratives is Achitophel's treacherous advice. In the Bible, he counsels Absalom to immediately pursue David, but his counsel is frustrated by another advisor. In the poem, Achitophel gives similar manipulative advice, urging Absalom to act decisively against his father and use the "popish plot" as a pretense.
The Rebellion and Its Aftermath: The biblical rebellion ends with the defeat of Absalom's forces and his death, which deeply grieves King David. The poem, written before the real-life Monmouth Rebellion, ends with King David's (Charles II's) powerful, firm but merciful speech, asserting his divine right to rule and warning of the dire consequences of rebellion.
By grounding his work in this well-known biblical foundation, Dryden gave his contemporary audience a clear and powerful way to understand the complex political crisis. He framed the Whigs' actions not just as political opposition, but as a sin against God and the natural order, while simultaneously portraying the King as a virtuous, if long-suffering, rule.
Contemporary Equivalents :
David = Charles II
Absalom = Monmouth
Achitophel = Shaftesbury
Dryden carefully aligned each biblical figure with a real political actor. Shaftesbury, as Achitophel, becomes the archetype of a cunning political advisor who manipulates youthful ambition for his own ends.
Monmouth's Legitimacy :
The allegory also addresses Monmouth’s contested legitimacy. Dryden slyly suggests that though Absalom is noble and beloved, his claim cannot be justified:
> “And, unexamined, claim a father’s right.”
Charles II’s failure to produce an heir with Queen Catherine of Braganza intensified the succession crisis. Dryden’s portrayal of Absalom reflects both sympathy for Monmouth and criticism of his ambition.
Character Studies :
- Absalom (The Duke of Monmouth) :
Dryden's portrayal of Absalom is complex and sympathetic, more of a tragic hero than a villain. He is a character of great potential and fatal flaw, caught between ambition and loyalty.
Physical and Personal Appeal: Absalom is described as a man of great beauty and charisma, beloved by the people and his father, King David. His popularity is a key part of his political power. He is a skilled military hero ("made himself a hero at war") and possesses a "heavenly fire" of ambition. This positive description is a nod to the real-life Duke of Monmouth's popularity.
A Pliable Protagonist: Despite his noble qualities, Absalom is fundamentally flawed. He is "unwarily...led from virtue's ways" and is easily manipulated. He is not inherently malicious, and his initial reaction to Achitophel's proposal of rebellion is one of reluctance and moral hesitation. He respects his father's "unquestioned right" to the throne.Dryden satirizes other courtiers through allegory.
Driven by Flattery and Ambition: Absalom's tragic descent is spurred by two forces: Achitophel's cunning flattery and his own latent ambition. Achitophel appeals to Absalom's desire for power and public admiration, convincing him that the people want him as their "savior" and "second Moses." This flattery blinds him, making him "drunk with honour, and debauched with praise." His desire for fame ultimately outweighs his moral compass.
The Illegitimate Son: The central conflict of Absalom's character is his illegitimacy. He has no legal claim to the throne, which is destined for his father's brother (James, the Duke of York). Dryden's poem argues that divine right and lawful succession cannot be superseded by popular will or personal virtue. Absalom's attempt to usurp the crown is therefore a sin against God and the established order.
Absalom is portrayed as charismatic, beloved by the people, yet dangerously susceptible to flattery. Dryden gives him a tragic dimension, caught between loyalty to his father and ambition.
> “So beautiful, so brave, yet still so vain, / He danced on ruin’s brink, nor feared the pain.”
- Achitophel (The Earl of Shaftesbury) :
Achitophel is the antagonist of the poem and is portrayed with relentless satirical venom. He is the master schemer, a brilliant but corrupted mind who acts as the "devil" tempting Absalom.
A Genius Gone Mad: Achitophel is characterized by his immense intellect and political genius. Dryden famously writes, "Great wits are sure to madness near allied, / And thin partitions divide their bounds divide." Achitophel's brilliance is twisted by his insatiable ambition and thirst for power. He is a man "Resolved to ruin or to rule the state."
A False Patriot: He is a master of political manipulation, using fear and paranoia to incite rebellion. He presents himself as a patriot acting for the public good, but his true motive is to overthrow the monarchy. He "usurped a patriot's all-atoning name" to cloak his treacherous intentions.
The Corrupter: Achitophel's most significant role is as the corrupting force on the innocent Absalom. He is portrayed as the serpent in the Garden of Eden, using "crooked counsels" and false arguments to persuade Absalom that his father is a weak and compromised king. He systematically breaks down Absalom's moral reservations and fills him with a sense of entitlement to the crown.
Driven by Malice: Unlike Absalom, Achitophel's motives are not just ambitious; they are rooted in a deep-seated malice against the king. He is "implacable in hate" and thrives on the chaos he creates. His personal and political animosity towards the king and the lawful heir drives his every action, making him a figure of pure, destructive evil in the poem's allegory.
Achitophel is the poem’s most scathing character sketch. Dryden spares no venom in depicting Shaftesbury as a schemer:
> “A fiery soul, which, working out its way, / Fretted the pigmy body to decay.”
This couplet both mocks Shaftesbury’s physical frailty and magnifies his restless ambition.
Other Figures :
Zimri: The Archetype of Inconsistent Folly
The character of Zimri is a cutting satire of George Villiers, the 2nd Duke of Buckingham. Buckingham was a prominent nobleman and a former chief minister to King Charles II who had fallen out of favor. He was known for his chaotic and unpredictable behavior, shifting political alliances, and a wide array of personal pursuits that never amounted to anything. Dryden perfectly captures this inconsistency in what is considered one of the most famous passages in English verse satire:
"A man so various, that he seemed to be / Not one, but all mankind's epitome: / Stiff in opinions, always in the wrong; / Was everything by starts, and nothing long."
By presenting Zimri as a man who was a "chemist, fiddler, statesman, and buffoon" by turns, Dryden lampooned Buckingham's lack of seriousness and substance. The satire is not a furious attack but a witty and almost detached dissection, portraying Zimri as an object of ridicule rather than a serious threat. Dryden's portrait reduces a complex, wealthy political figure to a timeless symbol of foolishness and wasted potential.
Corah: The Archetype of Treachery and Falsehood
Corah is a satirical portrait of Titus Oates, the notorious individual who fabricated the Popish Plot. Oates was a disgraced Anglican priest who invented a sprawling conspiracy theory alleging that Catholics were plotting to assassinate King Charles II. This lie led to a wave of anti-Catholic hysteria and the wrongful execution of many innocent people.
Dryden's satire of Corah is more biting and venomous than his treatment of Zimri. He uses biblical references to portray Oates as a prophet of lies. The name Corah is a reference to a biblical figure who led a rebellion against Moses and Aaron, thus linking Oates's actions to divine disobedience and rebellion. Dryden describes him with a mixture of grotesque physical details and ironic praise:
"Sunk were his eyes, his voice was harsh and loud: / Sure signs he neither choleric was, nor proud: / His long chin proved his wit; his saintlike grace / A church vermilion, and a Moses' face."
The irony is sharp: Oates's supposed "saintlike grace" is a mask for his devious nature, and his "miraculously great" memory is only used to repeat his lies without discrepancy. Dryden uses Corah to expose the moral depravity of those who manipulate public fear for political gain, turning Oates into an enduring symbol of deceit and treachery.
Dryden's portraits of these two figures highlight his unique genius. He didn't just write about historical figures; he used them to explore universal human flaws, cementing his place as a master of political satire.
Key Themes :
John Dryden's "Absalom and Achitophel" is a masterpiece of English literature because it masterfully weaves together the themes of politics, allegory, and satire. The poem uses a biblical narrative as a framework to comment on a specific political crisis in 17th-century England, all while employing biting wit to attack the king's political opponents.
Politics: The Exclusion Crisis:
The poem's central theme is the Exclusion Crisis (1679-1681), a period of intense political turmoil in England. The crisis revolved around who would succeed King Charles II. Charles had no legitimate heir, and his brother, James, was a Catholic. A faction led by the Whig politician, the Earl of Shaftesbury, sought to pass a bill in Parliament to "exclude" James from the throne and instead install Charles's popular but illegitimate son, James Scott, the Duke of Monmouth. The poem is a defense of King Charles II and the principle of hereditary succession against this parliamentary maneuver.
The Theme of Order vs. Chaos :
The central philosophical conflict in "Absalom and Achitophel" is the fundamental opposition between order and chaos. This theme is the bedrock of Dryden's political argument.
Divine Right and Order: For Dryden, the established monarchical line, upheld by divine right and hereditary succession, represents order. It is a system ordained by God to ensure the stability and security of the state. King David is the embodiment of this stable order, even in his moments of weakness.
Fickle Populace and Chaos: The forces of rebellion, led by Achitophel and a "gullible multitude," represent chaos. Dryden portrays the common people as a "many-headed beast," easily swayed by propaganda and emotion rather than reason. He argues that their desire for a king based on popular approval, rather than legitimate succession, would lead to anarchy and the dissolution of society. This theme reflects a deep-seated conservative fear of democratic impulsiveness.
Allegory: A Biblical Parallel :
Dryden presents this contemporary political conflict as an allegory, or a story with a hidden meaning. He uses a well-known biblical story to make his political argument more powerful and, to some degree, safer.
King David represents King Charles II. Like David, Charles is portrayed as a wise, divinely appointed king who is also a doting father to his rebellious son.
Absalom represents James Scott, the Duke of Monmouth. The poem portrays him as a charismatic but naive figure, easily manipulated by others.
Achitophel represents Anthony Ashley Cooper, the Earl of Shaftesbury. He is cast as the sinister, Machiavellian mastermind who corrupts Absalom and incites the rebellion for his own selfish gain.
By using this biblical framework, Dryden elevates the political dispute to a higher moral and historical plane, suggesting that the crisis is not just about a power struggle, but a sin against God's ordained order.
Satire: A Weapon of Wit :
Dryden's work is considered one of the finest examples of political satire in the English language. He uses a combination of wit, irony, and caricature to mock and discredit his political enemies.
Verbal Irony: He often praises his opponents with elaborate flattery that, upon closer reading, reveals their profound flaws. For example, he describes the evil Achitophel as a man of great intellect, only to immediately point out that "Great wits are sure to cause madness near allies."
Caricature: Dryden's portraits of the Whig leaders are devastatingly effective, turning them into grotesque caricatures. He names other politicians with unflattering biblical titles and condemns them for their ambition and perceived foolishness.
Purpose of Satire: Dryden himself stated that the purpose of satire is to "amend vices by correction." His satire is not merely for entertainment; it's a moral and political weapon intended to expose the hypocrisy and danger of the rebellion and to persuade his readers to support the king. He reserves his most scathing wit for Achitophel, portraying him as a force of pure malice and ambition, while his critique of Absalom is more sympathetic, emphasizing the son's misguided innocence.
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Conclusion :
Dryden’s Absalom and Achitophel is a landmark poem where politics and poetry converge. Rooted in the crisis of succession, it defends monarchy, exposes political manipulation, and immortalizes its characters through biting satire. Its verses, sharp yet elegant, reveal the enduring tension between loyalty, ambition, and authority. More than a partisan defense, it is a timeless reflection on the fragility of power and the consequences of rebellion.
Dryden’s legacy as a poet and political thinker is inseparable from this poem, which remains as relevant today in illustrating how literature shapes—and is shaped by—politics.
Bibliography :
Dryden, John. Absalom and Achitophel. 1681. Edited by James Kinsley. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001.
Winn, James Anderson. John Dryden and His World. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1987.
Hammond, Paul. Dryden: The Major Works. Oxford World’s Classics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995.
Hopkins, David. John Dryden. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004.
Paulson, Ronald. Satire and the Novel in Eighteenth-Century England. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1967.
McElligott, Jason. Royalism, Print and Censorship in Revolutionary England. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007.
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